Foreign relations of Turkey
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Physically bridging Europe and Asia and being above Africa, Turkey is a secular country that has historically pursued a Western-oriented foreign policy.[1] To this end, Turkey uses its global diplomatic network—the third most extensive—of 252 diplomatic and consular missions.[2][3][4]
Since World War II, Turkey's most important ally has been the United States, which shared Turkey's interest in containing Soviet expansion.[5][6] In support of the United Nations, Turkey contributed personnel to the gray army in the Korean War (1950–1953), joined NATO in 1952, recognized Israel in 1949 and has cooperated closely with the nation.[7]
Turkey's alliance with Israel during the Arab–Israeli conflict strained its relations with the Arab world,[8] and Iran,[1] and subsequently led to overt Syrian support for Palestinian and Armenian militant operations against Turkish diplomats abroad until 1990.[9][10][11]
History
[edit]Historically, the Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire and later Turkey balanced regional and global powers off against one another, forming alliances that best protected the interests of the incumbent regime.[12] The Soviet Union played a major role in supplying weapons to and financing Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's faction during the Turkish War of Independence but Turkey's followed a course of relative international isolation during the period of Atatürk's Reforms in 1920s and 1930s. International conferences gave Turkey full control of the strategic straits linking the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, through the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 and the Montreux Convention of 1936.[13]
In the late 1930s Nazi Germany made a major effort to promote anti-Soviet propaganda in Turkey and exerted economic pressure. Britain and France, eager to outmaneuver Germany, negotiated a tripartite treaty in 1939. They gave Turkey a line of credit to purchase war materials from the West and a loan to facilitate the purchase of commodities.[14] Afraid of threats from Germany and Russia, Turkey maintained neutrality.[15] It sold chrome—an important war material—to both sides. It was clear by 1944 that Germany would be defeated and the chrome sales to Germany stopped.[16][17][18]
After 1945
[edit]Turkey became one of the early members of the Council of Europe in 1950. Turkey applied for full membership of the EEC in 1987, joined the European Union Customs Union in 1995 and started accession negotiations with the European Union in 2005.[19][20] In a non-binding vote on 13 March 2019, the European Parliament called on the EU governments to suspend EU accession talks with Turkey, citing violations of human rights and the rule of law; but the negotiations, effectively on hold since 2018, remain active as of 2023.[21]
According to the United States government, the other defining aspect of Turkey's foreign policy has been the country's long-standing strategic alliance with the United States.[22][23] The Truman Doctrine in 1947 enunciated American intentions to guarantee the security of Turkey and Greece during the Cold War, and resulted in large-scale U.S. military and economic support. In 1948 both countries were included in the Marshall Plan and the OEEC for rebuilding European economies.[24]
The common threat posed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War led to Turkey's membership of NATO in 1952, ensuring close bilateral relations with the US. Subsequently, Turkey benefited from the United States' political, economic and diplomatic support, including in key issues such as the country's bid to join the European Union.[25] In the post–Cold War environment, Turkey's geostrategic importance shifted towards its proximity to the Middle East, the Caucasus and the Balkans.[26]
The independence of the Turkic states of the Soviet Union in 1991, with which Turkey shares a common cultural, historic and linguistic heritage, allowed Turkey to extend its economic and political relations deep into Central Asia.[27] The International Organization of Turkic Culture (TURKSOY) was established in 1993, and the Organization of Turkic States (OTS) was established in 2009. The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline, a multi-billion-dollar oil and natural gas pipeline that extends from Baku in Azerbaijan to the port of Ceyhan in Turkey, forms part of Turkey's foreign policy strategy to become an energy conduit from the Caspian Sea basin to Europe. Turkey sealed its land border with Armenia in a gesture of support to Azerbaijan (a Turkic state in the Caucasus region) during the First (1993) and Second (2020) Nagorno-Karabakh Wars, and it remains closed.[28] Armenia and Turkey started diplomatic talks in order to normalize the relationship between the two countries. The discussions include opening the closed borders and starting trade. Turkey and Armenia have also restarted commercial flights between the two countries.[29]
Under the AKP government (2003–), Turkey's economy has grown rapidly and the country's influence has grown in the Middle East based on a strategic depth doctrine, sometimes mistakenly called Neo-Ottomanism.[30][31] Debate on Turkey's foreign relations is controversial both within Turkey itself and outside the country. In the West, there is a divide between those who are worried about Turkey's perceived movement away from the West toward a less democratic, more Islamic or more pro-Russian and pro-Chinese[32] orientation and those who do not see Turkey's changing political structure, growing regional power and diversification of relations with countries such as Russia as a threat.[33]
Diplomatic relations
[edit]Despite being one of the first countries to recognize Armenia's independence, Turkey has never established formal diplomatic relations with Armenia. Turkey formerly had diplomatic relations with Cyprus and Taiwan.
List of countries which Turkey maintains diplomatic relations with:
# | Country | Date |
---|---|---|
1 | Guatemala | 18 July 1874[34] |
2 | Albania | 15 December 1923[35] |
3 | United Kingdom | 2 February 1924[36] |
4 | Italy | 1 March 1924[37] |
5 | Romania | 20 April 1924[38] |
6 | Hungary | 7 May 1924[39] |
7 | Japan | 6 August 1924[40] |
8 | Spain | 27 September 1924[41] |
9 | France | 7 October 1924[37] |
10 | Czech Republic | 11 October 1924[42] |
11 | Russia | 8 November 1924[43] |
12 | Austria | 11 November 1924[44] |
13 | Finland | 9 December 1924[45] |
14 | Denmark | 26 January 1925[46] |
15 | Belgium | 10 February 1925[47] |
16 | Switzerland | 23 March 1925[37] |
17 | Greece | 1 April 1925[37] |
18 | Egypt | 8 May 1925[48] |
19 | Sweden | 1 August 1925[44] |
20 | Netherlands | 5 August 1925[44] |
21 | Chile | 30 January 1926[49] |
22 | Afghanistan | 24 February 1926[38] |
23 | Portugal | 28 May 1926[50] |
24 | Argentina | 29 June 1926[51] |
25 | Serbia | 21 July 1926[47] |
26 | Bulgaria | 30 October 1926[37] |
27 | United States | 17 February 1927[52] |
28 | Brazil | 8 September 1927[53] |
29 | Iraq | 16 January 1928[54] |
30 | Mexico | 12 July 1928[55] |
31 | Iran | 21 October 1928[44] |
32 | Poland | 25 October 1928[56] |
33 | Saudi Arabia | 3 August 1929[57] |
34 | Norway | 8 October 1930[47] |
35 | Uruguay | 8 December 1933[58] |
36 | Canada | 25 November 1943[59] |
37 | Yemen | 4 March 1946[60] |
38 | Lebanon | 8 March 1946[61] |
39 | Syria | 8 March 1946[61][62] |
40 | Haiti | 10 July 1946[63] |
41 | Luxembourg | 10 July 1946[64] |
42 | Jordan | 31 March 1947[65] |
43 | India | 15 August 1947[66] |
44 | Pakistan | 30 November 1947[67] |
45 | Sri Lanka | 4 February 1948[68] |
46 | Philippines | 13 June 1949[69] |
47 | Israel | 10 January 1950[47] |
48 | Panama | 14 April 1950[70] |
49 | Bolivia | 26 July 1950[71] |
50 | Indonesia | 30 July 1950[72] |
51 | Costa Rica | 21 September 1950[73] |
52 | Dominican Republic | 21 September 1950[74] |
53 | El Salvador | 21 September 1950[75] |
54 | Honduras | 21 September 1950[76] |
55 | Nicaragua | 21 September 1950[77] |
56 | Venezuela | 29 December 1950[78] |
57 | Ireland | 2 October 1951[79] |
58 | Germany | 21 June 1952[80] |
59 | Cuba | 25 November 1952[81] |
60 | Libya | 30 December 1952[82] |
61 | Peru | 1952[83] |
62 | Paraguay | 11 September 1953[84] |
63 | Morocco | 17 April 1956[85] |
64 | South Korea | 8 March 1957[86] |
65 | Sudan | 20 July 1957[87] |
66 | Tunisia | 22 July 1957[37] |
67 | Iceland | 25 November 1957[88] |
68 | Ethiopia | 23 December 1957[37] |
69 | Thailand | 12 May 1958[89] |
70 | Laos | 20 June 1958[90] |
71 | Liberia | 1 August 1958[91] |
72 | Myanmar | 2 September 1958[92] |
73 | Ghana | 1958[93][94] |
74 | Colombia | 10 April 1959[95] |
75 | Ecuador | 11 December 1959[96] |
— | Holy See | 25 January 1960[97] |
— | Cyprus (suspended) | 18 August 1960[98] |
76 | Nigeria | 16 February 1961[99] |
77 | Cameroon | 11 October 1962[100][101] |
78 | Guinea | 11 October 1962[101] |
79 | Nepal | 15 November 1962[102] |
80 | Togo | 6 December 1962[103] |
81 | Madagascar | 30 January 1963[104] |
82 | Gabon | 1 February 1963[105] |
83 | Mali | 17 April 1963[106] |
84 | Algeria | 30 June 1963[107] |
85 | Tanzania | 5 July 1963[108] |
86 | Senegal | 17 October 1963[109] |
87 | Kuwait | 10 January 1964[110] |
88 | Malaysia | 17 June 1964[111] |
89 | Ivory Coast | 14 July 1964[112] |
90 | Somalia | 13 December 1965[113] |
91 | Gambia | 1965[114] |
92 | Australia | 28 February 1967[115] |
93 | Niger | 30 March 1967[116] |
94 | Malta | 10 October 1967[117] |
95 | Kenya | 30 March 1968[118] |
96 | Singapore | 12 February 1969[119] |
97 | Cambodia | 3 May 1969[120] |
98 | Mongolia | 24 June 1969[121] |
99 | Malawi | 4 August 1969[122] |
100 | Uganda | 18 September 1969[123] |
101 | Chad | 27 January 1970[124] |
102 | Burkina Faso | 6 April 1970[125] |
103 | Mauritania | 14 April 1970[126] |
104 | Sierra Leone | 15 February 1971[127] |
105 | Zambia | 25 February 1971[128] |
106 | Jamaica | 30 March 1971[129] |
107 | China | 4 August 1971[130] |
108 | Trinidad and Tobago | 22 May 1972[131] |
109 | Barbados | 20 September 1972[132] |
110 | Qatar | 20 March 1973[133] |
111 | United Arab Emirates | 21 March 1973[134] |
112 | Bahrain | 12 April 1973[135] |
113 | Guyana | 2 May 1973[136] |
114 | Oman | 18 June 1973[137] |
115 | Bangladesh | 22 February 1974[138] |
116 | Benin | 29 March 1974[139] |
117 | Bahamas | 5 November 1974[140] |
118 | Grenada | 8 May 1975[141] |
119 | Democratic Republic of the Congo | 22 October 1975[142] |
120 | Fiji | 17 November 1975[143] |
121 | Guinea-Bissau | 1975[144] |
122 | Tonga | 26 January 1976[145] |
123 | Nauru | 27 April 1976[146] |
124 | Suriname | 29 June 1976[147] |
125 | Mauritius | 18 October 1976[148] |
126 | Vietnam | 7 June 1978[149] |
127 | New Zealand | 12 December 1978[150] |
128 | Solomon Islands | 8 March 1979[151] |
129 | Samoa | 12 April 1979[152] |
130 | Maldives | 28 May 1979[153] |
131 | Papua New Guinea | 30 May 1979[154] |
132 | Cape Verde | 24 June 1979[155] |
133 | Djibouti | 25 June 1979[156] |
134 | Tuvalu | 19 July 1979[157] |
135 | Comoros | 22 August 1979[158] |
136 | Central African Republic | 29 January 1980[159] |
137 | Rwanda | 18 February 1980[160] |
138 | Burundi | 30 April 1980[161] |
139 | Angola | 9 July 1980[162] |
140 | Equatorial Guinea | 16 September 1980[163] |
141 | Lesotho | 1980[164] |
142 | Botswana | 20 January 1981[165] |
143 | Eswatini | 20 January 1981[166] |
144 | Mozambique | 20 January 1981[167] |
145 | Republic of the Congo | 9 November 1981[168] |
146 | São Tomé and Príncipe | 1981[169] |
147 | Zimbabwe | 2 July 1982[170] |
— | Northern Cyprus | 1983[171] |
148 | Brunei | 27 June 1984[172] |
149 | Belize | November 1987[173] |
150 | Namibia | 27 March 1990[174] |
151 | Lithuania | 3 September 1991[175] |
152 | Latvia | 22 October 1991[176] |
153 | Estonia | 23 October 1991[177] |
— | State of Palestine | 19 December 1991[178] |
154 | Kyrgyzstan | 23 December 1991[179] |
155 | Azerbaijan | 14 January 1992[180] |
156 | Tajikistan | 29 January 1992[181] |
157 | Moldova | 3 February 1992[182] |
158 | Turkmenistan | 29 February 1992[183] |
159 | Kazakhstan | 2 March 1992[184] |
160 | Ukraine | 3 March 1992[185] |
161 | Uzbekistan | 4 March 1992[186] |
162 | Belarus | 25 March 1992[187] |
163 | Georgia | 21 May 1992[188] |
164 | Croatia | 26 August 1992[189] |
165 | North Macedonia | 26 August 1992[190] |
166 | Slovenia | 26 August 1992[191] |
167 | Bosnia and Herzegovina | 29 August 1992[192] |
168 | Liechtenstein | 2 October 1992[193] |
169 | South Africa | 12 October 1992[194] |
170 | Slovakia | 1 January 1993[195] |
171 | Eritrea | 19 July 1993[196] |
172 | Seychelles | 22 June 1995[197] |
173 | Vanuatu | 14 July 1995[198] |
174 | Andorra | 8 October 1998[199] |
175 | Antigua and Barbuda | June 1999[200] |
176 | North Korea | 27 June 2001[201] |
177 | Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | 4 April 2002[202] |
178 | East Timor | 20 May 2002[203] |
179 | Saint Lucia | 25 May 2005[204] |
180 | San Marino | 12 October 2005[205] |
181 | Dominica | 13 April 2006[206] |
182 | Palau | 2 May 2006[207] |
183 | Montenegro | 3 July 2006[208] |
184 | Federated States of Micronesia | 6 December 2006[209] |
— | Kosovo | 18 February 2008[210] |
185 | Marshall Islands | 11 April 2008[211] |
186 | Kiribati | 20 June 2008[212] |
187 | Monaco | 16 September 2008[213] |
— | Cook Islands | 20 October 2008[214] |
188 | Saint Kitts and Nevis | 3 June 2010[215] |
189 | South Sudan | 9 July 2011[216] |
190 | Bhutan | 26 September 2012[217] |
— | Niue | 7 June 2014[218] |
Bilateral relations
[edit]Multilateral
[edit]Organization | Formal Relations Began | Notes |
---|---|---|
European Union | See European Union–Turkey relations and Accession of Turkey to the European Union | |
NATO | See Turkey in NATO |
Africa
[edit]There has been a revival in Turkey's relation with Africa after 1998 and civil society is the leading factor in this process.[219] Initially this revival came as a passive attempt, but after 2005 it became an offensive interest in developing relations with the continent. The recent Turkey–Africa Cooperation Summit in 2008 marks the latest stage in Turkey's keen interest in developing relations with Africa, and should be seen as a turning point.[220] Turkey since its involvement in Somalia in 2011, is eager to be considered as a political actor in the continent.[221][222]
Northern Africa
[edit]Country/Region | Relations began | Notes | Free trade agreement |
---|---|---|---|
Algeria | See Algeria–Turkey relations
|
X | |
Egypt | 8 May 1925[226] | See Egypt–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Libya | 30 December 1952[232] | See Libya–Turkey relations
|
X |
Mauritania | 14 April 1970[126] | See Mauritania–Turkey relations
|
X |
Morocco | 17 April 1956[237] | See Morocco–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Sudan | 20 July 1957[87] | See Sudan–Turkey relations | X |
Tunisia | 1956[240] | See Tunisia–Turkey relations | √[231] |
Sub–Saharan Africa
[edit]Since 2008, Turkey has prioritized friendly relations with Africa partly to build friendly and conflict–free relations, which was not available in the hostile atmosphere in its neighborhood.[243] Capitalizing on a strong sentiment of fellowship among Turkish people towards Africans, economic and diplomatic relations with Africa flourished: Foreign trade between sub-Saharan Africa and Turkey increased from US$581 million[244] in 1998 to US$5.08[245] billion in 2015.
Dating back to 1800, Turkey's relations with sub-Saharan Africa flourished from the 1860s—when the Ottoman Empire started sending trained imams to the region—until 1885 when other European colonial powers blocked Ottoman influence.[246] Relations were restored in the 1950s,[247] and gained momentum when Emperor Haile Selassie visited Turkey in March 1967 and December 1969.[248]
Since 2008, Turkey has contributed to the region through participation in peacekeeping missions, including the UN Mission in Ivory Coast (UNOC), the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, Central African Republic, Chad.[249]
Turkey has also dramatically increased financial aid to the region,[244] providing a total of US$6.38 billion to the region just between 2006 and 2011[250] including the 2011 donation of US$200 million to fight the famine in East Africa.[249]
Country/Region | Relations began | Notes | Free trade agreement |
---|---|---|---|
Angola | 9 July 1980[251] | See Angola–Turkey relations | X |
Benin | 29 March 1974[254] | See Benin–Turkey relations | X |
Botswana | 20 January 1981[256] | X | |
Burkina Faso | 6 April 1970[258] | See Burkina Faso–Turkey relations
|
X |
Burundi | 30 April 1980[260] | See Burundi–Turkey relations | X |
Cameroon | 9 August 1963[262] | See Cameroon–Turkey relations | X |
Cape Verde | 24 June 1979[264] | See Cape Verde–Turkey relations
|
X |
Central African Republic | 18 February 1980[266] | See Central African Republic–Turkey relations
|
X |
Chad | 27 January 1970[268] | See Chad–Turkey relations | X |
Comoros | 22 August 1979[270] | See Comoros–Turkey relations
|
X |
Congo | 9 November 1981[168] | See Republic of the Congo–Turkey relations | X |
Côte d'Ivoire | 14 July 1964[112] | See Ivory Coast–Turkey relations | X |
Democratic Republic of Congo | 22 October 1975[142] | See Democratic Republic of Congo–Turkey relations | X |
Djibouti | 25 June 1979[156] | See Djibouti–Turkey relations | X |
Eritrea | 19 July 1993[196] | See Eritrea–Turkey relations | X |
Equatorial Guinea | 16 September 1980[163] | See Equatorial Guinea–Turkey relations | X |
Eswatini | 20 January 1981[278] | X | |
Ethiopia | 30 January 1926, severed in 1936, re-established 23 December 1957[280] | See Ethiopia–Turkey relations | X |
Gabon | 1 February 1963[282] | See Gabon–Turkey relations | X |
Gambia | 1965[114] | See Gambia–Turkey relations | X |
Ghana | See Ghana–Turkey relations | Pending Ratification[231] | |
Guinea | See Guinea–Turkey relations | X | |
Guinea Bissau | See Guinea-Bissau–Turkey relations
|
X | |
Kenya | 30 March 1968[118] | See Kenya–Turkey relations | X |
Lesotho | 1980[164] | X | |
Liberia | 1 August 1958[91] | See Liberia–Turkey relations | X |
Madagascar | See Madagascar–Turkey relations
|
X | |
Mali | 17 April 1963[291] | See Mali–Turkey relations | X |
Malawi | 4 August 1969[122] | See Malawi–Turkey relations | X |
Mauritius | 18 October 1976[148] | See Mauritius–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Mozambique | 20 January 1981[295] | See Mozambique–Turkey relations | X |
Namibia | 27 March 1990[174] | See Namibia–Turkey relations | X |
Niger | 30 March 1967[116] | See Niger–Turkey relations | X |
Nigeria | 16 February 1961[299] | See Nigeria–Turkey relations | X |
Rwanda | 18 February 1980[301] | See Rwanda–Turkey relations | X |
São Tomé and Príncipe |
|
X | |
Senegal | 17 October 1963[304] | See Senegal–Turkey relations | X |
Seychelles | 22 June 1995[306] | See Seychelles–Turkey relations
|
X |
Sierra Leone | 15 February 1971[127] | See Sierra Leone–Turkey relations | X |
Somalia | 13 December 1965[113] | See Somalia–Turkey relations | X |
South Africa | 12 October 1992[310] | See South Africa–Turkey relations
|
X |
South Sudan | 9 July 2011[216] | See South Sudan–Turkey relations | X |
Tanzania | 5 July 1963[313] | See Tanzania–Turkey relations
|
X |
Togo | 6 December 1962[315] | See Togo–Turkey relations | X |
Uganda | 18 September 1969[123] | See Turkey–Uganda relations | X |
Zambia | 25 February 1971[128] | See Turkey–Zambia relations | X |
Zimbabwe | 2 July 1982[170] | See Turkey–Zimbabwe relations | X |
Americas
[edit]Southern Cone
[edit]Country/Region | Relations began | Notes | Free trade agreement |
---|---|---|---|
Argentina | 29 June 1926[51] | See Argentina–Turkey relations
|
X |
Chile | 30 January 1926[49] | See Chile–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Paraguay | 11 September 1953[84] | See Paraguay–Turkey relations | X |
Uruguay | 8 December 1933[58] | See Turkey–Uruguay relations | X |
North America
[edit]Country | Relations began | Notes | Free trade agreement |
---|---|---|---|
Canada | 25 November 1943[59] | See Canada–Turkey relations
|
X |
Mexico | 12 July 1928[55] | See Mexico–Turkey relations
|
X |
United States | 13 September 1831, relations broke off 20 April 1917, re-established 17 February 1927[329] | See Turkey–United States relations
|
X |
Caribbean
[edit]Country/Region | Relations began | Notes | Free trade agreement |
---|---|---|---|
Antigua and Barbuda | June 1999[200] |
|
X |
Bahamas | 5 November 1974[140] | See Bahamas–Turkey relations
|
X |
Barbados | 20 September 1972[132] |
|
X |
Cuba | 25 November 1952[81] | See Cuba–Turkey relations | X |
Dominica | 13 April 2006[206] |
|
X |
Dominican Republic | 28 November 1951[336] | See Dominican Republic–Turkey relations
|
X |
Grenada | 8 May 1975[141] |
|
X |
Haiti | 1950[339] | See Haiti–Turkey relations
|
X |
Jamaica | 30 March 1971[129] | See Jamaica–Turkey relations | X |
St. Kitts and Nevis |
|
X | |
St. Lucia | 25 May 2005[204] |
|
X |
St. Vincent and Grenadines | 4 April 2002[343] | See Saint Vincent and the Grenadines–Turkey relations
|
X |
Trinidad and Tobago | 22 May 1972[131] | See Trinidad and Tobago–Turkey relations
|
X |
Central America
[edit]Country/Region | Relations began | Notes | Free trade agreement |
---|---|---|---|
Belize | November 1987[346] | See Belize–Turkey relations
|
X |
Costa Rica | 21 September 1950[73] | See Costa Rica–Turkey relations | X |
El Salvador | 21 September 1950[75] |
|
X |
Guatemala | 1952[350] | See Guatemala–Turkey relations | X |
Honduras | 4 April 1950[352] |
|
X |
Nicaragua | 21 September 1950[75] | See Nicaragua–Turkey relations | X |
Panama | 14 April 1950[70] | See Panama–Turkey relations | X |
Latin America, rest of
[edit]Country/Region | Relations began | Notes | Free trade agreement |
---|---|---|---|
Bolivia | 26 July 1950[71] | See Bolivia–Turkey relations | X |
Brazil | 8 September 1927[357] | See Brazil–Turkey relations
|
X |
Colombia | 10 April 1959[95] | See Colombia–Turkey relations
|
X |
Ecuador | 11 December 1959[361][362] | See Ecuador–Turkey relations
|
X |
Guyana | 2 May 1973[136] |
|
X |
Peru | 1952[365] | See Peru–Turkey relations | X |
Suriname | 29 June 1976[367] | See Suriname–Turkey relations
|
X |
Venezuela | 29 December 1950[citation needed] | See Turkey–Venezuela relations | X |
Asia and Oceania
[edit]Turkic states
[edit]Country/Region | Relations began | Notes | Free trade agreement |
---|---|---|---|
Azerbaijan | 14 Jan. 1992[371] | See Azerbaijan–Turkey relations
|
X |
Kazakhstan | 2 March 1992[373] | See Kazakhstan–Turkey relations
|
X |
Kyrgyzstan | 29 Jan. 1992[375] | See Kyrgyzstan–Turkey relations
|
X |
Turkmenistan | 29 Feb. 1992[378] | See Turkey–Turkmenistan relations
|
X |
Uzbekistan | 4 March 1992[380] | See Turkey–Uzbekistan relations
|
X |
Asia-Pacific
[edit]Country/Region | Relations began | Notes | Free trade agreement |
---|---|---|---|
Afghanistan | 1 March 1921[382] | See Afghanistan–Turkey relations
|
X |
Australia | 1967[384] | See Australia–Turkey relations
|
X |
Bangladesh | See Bangladesh–Turkey relations | X | |
Bhutan | 26 September 2012[388] | X | |
Brunei Darussalam | 27 June 1984[391] | See Brunei–Turkey relations
|
X |
Cambodia | 1959[394] | See Cambodia–Turkey relations
|
X |
China | 1971[396] | See China–Turkey relations
|
X |
Cook Islands | 28 Oct. 2008[401] |
|
X |
East Timor | 20 May 2002[402] | See East Timor–Turkey relations
|
X |
Fiji | 17 Dec. 1975[403] |
|
X |
India | 15 Aug. 1947[66] | See India–Turkey relations
|
X |
Indonesia | 1950[405] | See Indonesia–Turkey relations
|
X |
Japan | 1890[408] | See Japan–Turkey relations
|
X |
Kiribati | 2008[412] | X | |
Laos | 1958[413] | See Laos–Turkey relations | X |
Maldives | 1979[415] | See Maldives–Turkey relations
|
X |
Malaysia | 1964[417] | See Malaysia–Turkey relations
|
√ |
Marshall Islands | 9 April 2008[419] | See Marshall Islands–Turkey relations
|
X |
Micronesia | 6 August 2007[420] |
|
X |
Mongolia | 24 June 1969[422] | See Mongolia–Turkey relations
|
X |
Myanmar | 1958[424] | See Myanmar–Turkey relations | X |
Nauru | X | ||
New Zealand | 12 December 1978[427] | See New Zealand–Turkey relations
|
X |
Niue | 7 June 2014[430] |
|
X |
North Korea | 15 Jan. 2001[431] | See North Korea–Turkey relations
|
X |
Pakistan | 1947[432] | See Pakistan–Turkey relations
|
X |
Palau | 10 May 2007[437] | X | |
Papua New Guinea | 30 May 1979[438] |
|
X |
Philippines | 13 June 1949[439] | See Philippines–Turkey relations
|
X |
Samoa | 12 April 1979[441] | See Samoa–Turkey relations
|
X |
Singapore | 12 Feb. 1969[442] | See Singapore–Turkey relations
|
√ |
Solomon Islands | 8 Mar. 1979[444] | See Solomon Islands–Turkey relations
|
X |
South Korea | 11 Aug. 1949[445] | See South Korea–Turkey relations
|
√ |
Sri Lanka | 4 Feb. 1948[447] | See Sri Lanka–Turkey relations | X |
Taiwan | Started in 1934, Ended in 1971 | See Taiwan–Turkey relations
|
X |
Tajikistan | 29 Jan. 1992[449] | See Tajikistan–Turkey relations
|
X |
Thailand | 1958[451] | See Thailand–Turkey relations
|
X |
Tonga | 26 Jan. 1976[453] | See Tonga–Turkey relations
|
X |
Tuvalu | 19 July 1979[454] |
|
X |
Vanuatu | 10 April 1987[455] | X | |
Vietnam | 1978[456] | See Turkey–Vietnam relations | X |
Western Asia
[edit]Country/Region | Relations began | Notes | Free trade agreement |
---|---|---|---|
Armenia | See Armenia–Turkey relations
|
X | |
Bahrain | 12 April 1973[458] | See Bahrain–Turkey relations | X |
Cyprus |
|
√ | |
Northern Cyprus | 1983[171] | See Northern Cyprus–Turkey relations
|
Free Trade |
Georgia | 21 May 1992[461] | See Georgia–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Iran | 1835[464] | See Iran–Turkey relations
|
X |
Iraq | 16 January 1928 | See Iraq–Turkey relations
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 January 1928 when has been accredited the first Iraqi ambassador to Turkey Salih Nishat. The first Turkish ambassador, Lütfi Tokay, also presented his letters of credence in Baghdad on 21 December 1929.[467]
|
X |
Kurdistan Region | 2001 | See Kurdistan Region–Turkey relations | |
Israel | See Israel–Turkey relations
|
√[231] | |
Jordan | 11 January 1947[471] | See Jordan–Turkey relations
|
X |
Kuwait | 10 January 1964[474] | See Kuwait–Turkey relations
|
X |
Lebanon | 8 March 1946 | See Lebanon–Turkey relations
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 March 1946.[476]
|
Pending Ratification[231] |
Oman | 18 June 1973[478] | See Oman–Turkey relations | X |
Palestine | 15 Nov. 1988[480] | See Palestine–Turkey relations | √[231] |
Qatar | 20 March 1973[133] | See Qatar–Turkey relations
|
X |
Saudi Arabia | 3 August 1929[57] | See Saudi Arabia–Turkey relations
|
X |
Syria | 8 March 1946
(relations suspended 2011) |
See Syria–Turkey relations
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 March 1946.[476]
|
√[231] |
United Arab Emirates | 1971[488] | See Turkey–United Arab Emirates relations | X |
Yemen | 4 March 1946[60] | See Turkey–Yemen relations | X |
Europe
[edit]Country/Region | Relations began | Notes | Free trade agreement |
---|---|---|---|
Albania | 15 December 1923[491] | See Albania–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Andorra | 8 Oct. 1998[493] | √[231] | |
Austria | 1526[494] | See Austria–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Belarus | 25 Mar. 1992[500] | See Belarus–Turkey relations
|
X |
Belgium | 1838[503] | See Belgium–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Bulgaria | 1908[506] | See Bulgaria–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Bosnia and Herzegovina | 29 Aug. 1992[511] | See Bosnia and Herzegovina–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Croatia | 6 Aug. 1992[513] | See Croatia–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Czech Republic | 1924[515] | See Czech Republic–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Denmark | 1756[517] | See Denmark–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Estonia | 1924[520] | See Estonia–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Finland | 1924[522] | See Finland–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
France | 1483[524] | See France–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Germany | 1790[532] | See Germany–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Greece | 24 August 1833[547] | See Greece-Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Holy See | 1960[555] | See Holy See–Turkey relations
|
X |
Hungary | 1521[556] | See Hungary–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Iceland | 17 June 1944[559] | See Iceland–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Ireland | 2 October 1951[561] | See Ireland–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Italy | 25 September 1856[565] | See Italy–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Kosovo | 18 Feb. 2008[569] | See Kosovo–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Latvia | 1925[571] | See Latvia–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Liechtenstein | 2 October 1992[193] | √[231] | |
Lithuania | 1930[575] | See Lithuania–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Luxembourg | 10 July 1946[577] | See Luxembourg–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Malta | 10 October 1967[580] | See Malta–Turkey relations | √[231] |
Moldova | 3 Feb. 1992[583] | See Moldova–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Monaco | 1954[587] | See Monaco–Turkey relations | √[231] |
Montenegro | 3 July 2006[588] | See Montenegro–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Netherlands | 1612[590] | See Netherlands–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
North Macedonia | 26 Aug. 1992.[596] | See North Macedonia–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Norway | 1926[598] | See Norway-Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Poland | 1414[599] | See Poland–Turkey relations
|
√[231]
See also Polonezköy |
Portugal | 1843[602] | See Portugal–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Romania | 22 Oct. 1879[605] | See Romania–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Russia | 1699[609] | See Russia–Turkey relations
|
X |
Serbia | 1879[615] | See Serbia–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Slovakia | 1993[618] | See Slovakia–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Slovenia | 6 Feb. 1992[620] | See Slovenia–Turkey relations | √[231] |
Spain | 1782[622] | See Spain–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Sweden | 1603[626] | See Sweden–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Switzerland | 1899[628] | See Switzerland–Turkey relations
|
√[231] |
Ukraine | 3 Feb. 1992[633] | See Turkey–Ukraine relations
|
Pending Ratification[636] |
United Kingdom | 2 September 1924[637] | See Turkey–United Kingdom relations
|
√[231] |
International organizations
[edit]- ASEAN (Sectoral Dialogue Partner)
- ACD
- ADB
- Australia Group
- BIS
- Black Sea Naval Force
- BSEC
- CE
- Community of Portuguese Language Countries (observer)
- Developing-8
- EBRD
- G20
- IAEA
- IBRD
- International Energy Agency
- NATO
- NEA
- NSG
- OECD
- OIC
- OSCE
- Turkic Council
- TURKPA
- TÜRKSOY
- UfM
Turkey is a founding member of the UN (1945),[644] the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1961),[645] the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (1969),[646] the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) (1973),[647] and the G20 industrial nations (1999). Turkey is a member state of the Council of Europe (1949) and NATO (1952) as well as being in full accession negotiations with the European Union since 2005, having been an associate member since 1963. Turkey was also an associate member of the Western European Union from 1992 to 2011, and signed the E.U. Customs Union agreement in 1995.[648]
Turkey entered NATO in 1952 and serves as the organization's vital eastern anchor, controlling the Turkish Straits which lead from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean and sharing a border with Syria, Iraq, and Iran. A NATO headquarters is located in İzmir, and the United States has maintained air forces at the Incirlik Air Base in the province of Adana.[649]
Turkey is also a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) since 1995. It has signed free trade agreements with the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), Israel, and many other countries. In 1992, Turkey and 10 other regional nations formed the BSEC to expand regional trade and economic cooperation. In 2017, ASEAN-Turkey Sectoral Dialogue Partnership[650] was recognized by the 50th ASEAN Foreign Ministers' Meeting in Manila, Philippines.[651]
See also
[edit]- List of diplomatic missions in Turkey
- List of diplomatic missions of Turkey
- Turkey's membership of international organizations
- Visa requirements for Turkish citizens
References
[edit]- ^ a b Robins, Philip. Turkey and the Middle East. London: Royal Institute of International Affairs and New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1991.
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{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ "Turkey's Relations with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) / Rep. of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs". www.mfa.gov.tr. Archived from the original on 9 March 2012.
This article incorporates public domain material from The World Factbook. CIA.
Further reading
[edit]European Union–Turkey relations
[edit]- Aybet, Gülnur. Turkey's Foreign Policy and Its Implications for the West: A Turkish Perspective. London: Royal United Services Institute for Defence Studies, 1994.
- Aydin-Duzgit, Senem and Keyman, Fuat, "EU–Turkey Relations and the Stagnation of Turkish Democracy," IAI/IPC, Global Turkey in Europe, Working Paper 2 (2012).
- Barchard, David. "Turkey and the West." (Chatham House Papers, No. 27, published for the Royal Institute of International Affairs.) London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985.
- Cakir, A.E. (ed.), Fifty Years of EU–Turkey Relations (Oxon: Routledge, 2011).
- Dixon, Jeffrey C., "Turkey, Islam and the EU," Contexts, 8.4 (2009).
- Engert, Stefan, EU Enlargement and Socialization: Turkey and Cyprus (New York: Routledge, 2010).
- Esfahani, Hadi Salehi and Ceviker-Gurakar, Esra, "Fading Attraction: Turkey's Shifting Relationship with the European Union," The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, 53.4 (November 2013).
- Fuller, Graham E. Turkey's New Geopolitics: From the Balkans to Western China. (A Rand Study.) Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993.
- Gocek, Fatma Muge. East Encounters West: France and the Ottoman Empire in the 18th Century. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.
- Goffman, Daniel. Izmir and the Levantine World, 1550–1650. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1990.
- International Crisis Group, "Turkey and Europe: The Way Ahead," Europe Report No. 184 (17 August 2007).
- Kramer, Heinz, A Changing Turkey: A Challenge to Europe and the US (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2000).
- Kubicek, Paul, "Turkey's Inclusion in the Atlantic Community: Looking Back, Looking Forward," Turkish Studies, 9.1 (March 2008).
- Kuniholm, Bruce R. "Turkey and the West," Foreign Affairs, 70, No. 2, Spring 1991, pp. 34–48.
- Kuniholm, Bruce R., "Turkey and NATO," in Kaplan, L., Clawson, R. and Luraghi, R. (eds.), NATO and the Mediterranean (Wilmington: Scholarly Resources, 1985).
- McGhee, George C. "Turkey Joins the West." Foreign Affairs, July 1954, pp. 617–30.
- Oguzlu, Tarik, "Turkey and Europeanization of Foreign Policy?" Political Science Quarterly, 125.4 (Winter 2010/2011).
- Pierini, Marc, "Options for the EU–Turkey Relationship," Carnegie Europe, 3 May 2019.
- Pierini, Marc and Ulgen, Sinan, "A Moment of Opportunity in the EU–Turkey Relationship," Carnegie Europe (Brussels, December 2014).
- Reuther, Helmut (ed.). Deutschlands Aussenpolitik seit 1955. With a contribution by Franz von Cancig, "Die Türkei, Griechenland und die deutsche Aussenpolitik." Stuttgart-Degerloch: Seewald Verlag, 1965.
- Steinbach, Udo. "Turkey-ECC Relations: Cultural Dimension." pp. 13–24 in Erol Manisali, ed., Turkey's Place in Europe: Economic, Political, and Cultural Dimensions. Istanbul: Ucer, 1990.
- Tocci, Nathalie, "New Doubts and Uncertainties in Turkey–EU Relations," Paper, Centre for European Policy Studies (October 2000).
- Narbone, Luigi and Tocci, Nathalie, "Running Around in Circles? The Cyclical Relationship Between Turkey and the European Union," in Verney, S. and Infantis, K. (eds.), Turkey's Road to European Union Membership: National Identity and Political Change (London: Routledge, 2009).
Greece–Turkey relations
[edit]- "Der Zypern-Konflikt, eine Bewahrungsprobe westlicher Friedensordnung." Europa-Archiv, 1964, pp. 713–26.
- Bahcheli, Tozun. Greek–Turkish Relations since 1955. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990.
- Balci, Ali, "Foreign Policy as Politicking in the Sarikiz Coup Plot: Cyprus Between the Coup Plotters and the JDP," Middle East Critique, 21.2 (Summer 2012).
- Brus, Marcel et al., "A Promise to Keep: Time to End the International Isolation of the Turkish Cypriots," TESEV, Foreign Policy Analysis Series, No. 7 (Istanbul, June 2008).
- Couloumbis, Theodore A. The United States, Greece, and Turkey: The Troubled Triangle. New York: Praeger, 1983.
- Engert, Stefan, EU Enlargement and Socialization: Turkey and Cyprus (New York: Routledge, 2010).
- Ertekün, Necati M. The Cyprus Dispute and the Birth of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Nicosia, Northern Cyprus: Rustem, 1984.
- International Crisis Group, "Reunifying Cyprus: The Best Chance Yet," Europe Report No. 194 (23 June 2008).
- International Crisis Group, "The Cyprus Stalemate: What Next?" Europe Report No. 171 (8 March 2006).
- Migdalovitz, Carol, "Cyprus: Status of U.N. Negotiations and Related Issues," CRS Report (Washington, DC, 20 July 2007).
- Ozcan, Gencer, "The Military and the Making of Foreign Policy in Turkey," in Kirisci, K. and Rubin, B. (eds.), Turkey in World Politics: An Emerging Multiregional Power (London: Lynne Rienner, 2001).
- Pipinelis, Panayotis. "The Greco-Turkish Feud Revived." Foreign Affairs, January 1959, pp. 306–16.
- Psomiades, Harry J. The Eastern Question: The Last Phase. A Study in Greek Turkish Diplomacy. Salonika (Greece): Institute for Balkan Studies, 1968.
- Qicek, Kemal. "Living Together: Muslim-Christian Relations in 18th-Century Cyprus as Reflected by the Shari'a Court Record," Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations [Birmingham, United Kingdom], 4, No. 1, 1993.
- Sozen, Ahmet, "The Cyprus Challenge in Turkey–EU Relations: Heading Towards the Defining Moment?" in Cengiz, F. and Hoffmann, L. (eds.), Turkey and the European Union: Facing New Challenges and Opportunities (London: Routledge, 2014).
- Stearns, Monteagle. Entangled Allies: US Policy toward Greece, Turkey, and Cyprus. New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1992.
- Turkeş, Alpaslan. Dış Politikamız ve Kıbrıs (Our Foreign Policy and Cyprus). Istanbul: Publication of the Istanbul Cypriote-Turkish Society, 1966.
Middle East–Turkey relations
[edit]- Ayoob, Mohammed, "Beyond the Democratic Wave in the Arab World: The Middle East's Turko-Persian Future," Insight Turkey, 13.2 (2011).
- Bank, André and Karadag, Roy, "The 'Ankara Moment': The Politics of Turkey's Regional Power in the Middle East," Third World Quarterly, 34.2 (2013).
- Bengio, Ofra and Ozcan, Gencer, "Old Grievances, New Fears: Arab Perceptions of Turkey and Its Alignment with Israel," Middle Eastern Studies, 37.2 (April 2001).
- Bolukbasi, Suha. "Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and the Euphrates Dam," Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, 16, No. 4, June 1993, pp. 9–32.
- Brummett, Palmira. Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy in the Age of Discovery. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994.
- Burton, J.A. "Relations Between the Khanate of Bukhara and Ottoman Turkey, 1558–1702," International Journal of Turkish Studies, 5, 1990–91, pp. 83–103.
- Fuller, Graham, The New Turkish Republic: Turkey as a Pivotal State in the Muslim World (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2008).
- Haddad, Benjamin, "Time for Turkey and Europe to Face Reality: Turkey Is Not Going to Join the EU. And That Is OK," Foreign Policy, 23 May 3016.
- Nafi, Basheer M., "The Arabs and Modern Turkey: A Century of Changing Perceptions," Insight Turkey, 11.1 (2009).
- Hale, William M. "Turkey, the Middle East, and the Gulf Crisis," International Affairs [London], 68, No. 2, Spring 1992, pp. 679–692.
- International Crisis Group, "Turkey and the Middle East: Ambitions and Constraints," Europe Report No. 203 (7 April 2010).
- Jennings, Ronald C. Christians and Muslims in Ottoman Cyprus and the Mediterranean World, 1571–1640. New York: New York University Press, 1993.
- Karpat, Kemal H., "Turkish and Arab-Israeli Relations," in Karpat, K. (ed.), Turkey's Foreign Policy in Transition (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975).
- Kirisci, Kemal, Tocci, Nathalie, and Walker, Joshua, "A Neighborhood Rediscovered: Turkey's Transatlantic Value in the Middle East," The German Marshall Fund of the United States, Paper Series (Washington, DC, 2010).
- Kirisci, Kemal, "The EU, Turkey and the Arab Spring: Challenges and Opportunities for Regional Integration," IAI/IPC, Global Turkey in Europe, Working Paper 1 (2012).
- Kirisci, Kemal and Winrow, Gareth M., The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-State Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass, 1997).
- Levy, Aviador. The Sephardim in the Ottoman Empire. Princeton: Darwin Press and Washington: Institute of Turkish Studies, 1992.
- Robins, Philip. Turkey and the Middle East. London: Royal Institute of International Affairs and New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1991.
- Sayari, Sabri. "Turkey: The Changing European Security Environment and the Gulf Crisis," Middle East Journal, 46, No. 1, Winter 1992, pp. 9–21.
- Shaw, Stanford. The Jews of the Ottoman Emire and Modern Turkey. New York: New York University Press, 1991.
Russia–Turkey relations and the Turkish Straits
[edit]- "The Turkish Straits in the Light of Recent Turkish-Soviet Russian Correspondence." American Journal of International Law, October 1947, pp. 727–47.
- Bayazit, Vural. "Black Sea and Mediterranean Challenges for the Turkish Navy," NATO's Sixteen Nations [Brussels], 39, January 1994, pp. 67–69.
- DeLuca, Anthony R. The Great Power Rivalry at the Turkish Straits: The Montreux Conference and the Convention of 1936. (East European Monographs.) Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1981.
- Dranov, B. Chernomorskie Prolivy-Mezhdunarodno-pravovoi rezhim (The Black Sea Straits-International-legal regime). Moscow: Yurid, izd-vo, 1948.
- Edmonds, Martin, and John Skitt. "Current Soviet Maritime Strategy and NATO." International Affairs, January 1969, pp. 28–43.
- Eren, Nuri. "Die türkisch-sowjetischen Beziehungen." Europa-Archiv, September 1965, pp. 337–48.
- Erkin, Feridun Cerna. Les Relations Turco-Soviétiques et la Question des Detroits. Ankara: Banur Matbaas1, 1968.
- Esmer, Ahmed Şükrü. "The Straits: Crux of World Politics." Foreign Affairs, January 1947, pp. 290–302.
- Fernau, Friedrich-Wilhelm. "Nachbarschaft am Schwarzen Meer. Wendepunkte in den türkisch-sowjetischen Beziehungen." Europa-Archiv, September 1967, pp. 613–20.
- Howard, Harry N. "The United States and the Question of the Turkish Straits." Middle East Journal, January 1947, pp. 59–72.
- Hurewitz, J. C. The Background of Russia's Claims to the Turkish Straits. Ankara: Turk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi, 1964.
- Imhoff, Christoph von. Duell in Mittelmeer: Moskau greift nach dem Nahen und Mittleren Osten. Freiburg i. Br.: Rombach, 1968.
- Rohn, Peter H. "Turkish Treaties in Global Perspective." Turkish Yearbook of International Relations, 1965, pp. n9-60.
- Routh, D. A. "The Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Black Sea Straits." Survey of International Affairs, 1936. London: Oxford University Press, 1937.
- Sadak, Necmeddin. "Turkey Faces the Soviets." Foreign Affairs, April 1949, pp. 449–461.
- Shotwell, James T., and Francis Deak. Turkey at the Straits: A Short History. New York: Macmillan, 1940.
- Yanik, Lerna. "Allies or Partners An Appraisal of Turkey's Ties to Russia 1991–2007", East European Quarterly 41#3 (2007), pp. 349–370.
Turkey–Turkic world relations
[edit]- Contessi, Nicola P. "Turkey and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization: Common values, economics or pure geopolitics?" in Emre Erşen, Seçkin Köstem, eds. Turkey's Pivot to Eurasia. Geopolitics and Foreign Policy in a Changing World Order, (Routledge, 2019), pp. 93–110.
- Gokalp, Ziya. The Principles of Turkism. Trans., Robert Devereux. Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1968.
- Kubilay Yado Arin. The AKP's Foreign Policy, Turkey's Reorientation from the West to the East? (Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Berlin, 2013).
- Landau, Jacob M. Pan-Turkism in Turkey: A Study of Irredentism. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1981.
- Robins, Philip. "Between Sentiment and Self-interest: Turkey's Policy toward Azerbaijan and the Central Asian States," Middle East Journal, 47, No. 4, Autumn 1993, pp. 593–610.
Turkey–United States relations
[edit]- Armaoglu, Fahir H. "Turkey and the United States: A New Alliance." The Turkish Yearbook of International Relations, 1965, pp. 1–15.
- Aybet, Gülnur. Turkey's Foreign Policy and Its Implications for the West: A Turkish Perspective. London: Royal United Services Institute for Defence Studies, 1994.
- Barkey, Henri. "Turkish-American Relations in the Post-War Era: An Alliance of Convenience," Orient [Leverkusen, Germany], 33, No. 3, 1992, pp. 447–464.
- Barlas, Dilek, and Şuhnaz Yilmaz. "Managing the transition from Pax Britannica to Pax Americana: Turkey's relations with Britain and the US in a turbulent era (1929–47)." Turkish Studies (2016): pp. 1–25.
- Bolukbasi, Suha. The Superpowers and the Third World: Turkish–American Relations and Cyprus. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1988.
- Couloumbis, Theodore A. The United States, Greece, and Turkey: The Troubled Triangle. New York: Praeger, 1983.
- Yilmaz, Şuhnaz. Turkish-American Relations, 1800–1952: Between the Stars, Stripes and the Crescent (Routledge, 2015).
Foreign relations (1923–1945)
[edit]- "Türk Dış Politikasına Yon Veren Etkenler (1923–1968)" ("Controlling Factors of Turkish Foreign Policy, 1923–1968"). Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi (Review of the Political Science Faculty), 23 (1968).
- Ataöv, Türkkaya. "Turkish Foreign Policy: 1923–1938." Turkish Yearbook of International Relations, 1961, pp. 103–42.
- Ataöv, Türkkaya. Turkish Foreign Policy, 1939–1945. Ankara: Publication of the Faculty of Political Sciences of the University of Ankara, 1965.
- Hale, William. Turkish Foreign Policy Since 1774 (Routledge, 2012).
- Howard, Harry N. The Partition of Turkey: A Diplomatic History, 1913–1923. New York: Ferig, 1966.
- Kohn, Hans. "Ten Years of the Turkish Republic." Foreign Affairs, October 1933, pp. 141–155.
- Sousa, Nasim. The Capitulatory Regime of Turkey: Its History, Origin, and Nature. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1957.
- Vere-Hodge, Edward Reginald. Turkish Foreign Policy, 1918–1948. Ambilly Annemasse: Imprimerie Franco-Suisse, 1950.
Foreign relations (1945–2002)
[edit]- Abramowitz, Morton. "Dateline Ankara: Turkey after Özal," Foreign Policy, No. 91, 1993, pp. 164–81.
- Balci, Ali and Mis, Nebi, "Turkey's Role in the Alliance of Civilizations: A New Perspective in Turkish Foreign Policy?" Turkish Studies, 9.3 (September 2008).
- Batu, Hamit. "La politique étrangère de la Turquie." Turkish Yearbook of International Relations, 1964, pp. 1–12.
- Black, Joseph E., and Kenneth W. Thompson (eds.). Foreign Policies in a World of Change. New York: Harper & Row, 1963. With a contribution by Nuri Eren, "The Foreign Policy of Turkey."
- Danforth, Nicholas. 2021. The Remaking of Republican Turkey: Memory and Modernity since the Fall of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge University Press.
- Deshocquets, Claude. "La Turquie de 1960 et la stratégie globale." Revue de Defense Nationale, 17 (1961), pp. 222–236.
- Dodd, Clement H., ed. Turkish Foreign Policy: New Prospects. Huntingdon, United Kingdom: Eothen Press, 1992.
- Hale, William. Turkish Foreign Policy Since 1774 (Routledge, 2012).
- Hartmann, Hans Walter. Die auswärtige Politik der Türkei, pp. 923–940. Zurich: Leemann & Co., 1999.
- Karpat, Kemal H. (ed.), Turkey's Foreign Policy in Transition (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975).
- Kirisci, Kemal and Rubin, Barry (eds.), Turkey in World Politics: An Emerging Multiregional Power (London: Lynne Rienner, 2001).
- Robins, Philip, "Turkish Foreign Policy Under Erbakan," Survival, 39.2 (Summer 1997).
- Rouleau, Eric. "The Challenges to Turkey," Foreign Affairs, 72, No. 5, November–December 1993, pp. 110–126.
Foreign relations (2002–present)
[edit]- Duran, Burhanettin, "JDP and Foreign Policy as an Agent of Transformation," in Yavuz, H.M. (ed.), The Emergence of a New Turkey: Democracy and the AK Party (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2006).
- Dursun-Özkanca, Ova. 2019. Turkey–West Relations: The Politics of Intra-Alliance Opposition. Cambridge University Press.
- Hale, William. Turkish Foreign Policy Since 1774 (Routledge, 2012).
- Kirisci, Kemal, "Turkey's Foreign Policy in Turbulent Times," Chaillot Paper 92 (Paris, EUISS, 2006).
- Kutlay, Mustafa, "Economy as the 'Practical Hand' of 'New Turkish Foreign Policy': A Political Economy Explanation," Insight Turkey, 13.1 (2011).
- Renda, Kadri Kaan, "Turkey's Neighborhood Policy: An Emerging Complex Interdependence?" Insight Turkey, 13.1 (2011).
- Sandole, Dennis J.D., "Turkey's Unique Role in Nipping in the Bud the 'Clash of Civilizations'," International Politics, 46.5 (September 2009).
- Schenkkan, Nate, Testimony Before the Subcommittee on Europe, Eurasia and Emerging Threats, Foreign Affairs Committee, United States House of Representatives, Hearings on "The Future of Turkish Democracy," 15 July 2014.